Lead and zinc ores were discovered in Cherokee County, Kansas in 1870 near the present-day location of the town of Galena. Ore bodies were subsequently discovered in various locations throughout the southeastern half of Cherokee County. Mining activities in Cherokee County continued until closure of the Swalley Mine in Baxter Springs, Kansas in 1970. Total ore production during this time is estimated at more than 2.9 million tons of zinc and 650 thousand tons of lead. The total number of mines which operated within Cherokee County is estimated to be in the hundreds. Metal-bearing ores were initially processed in small smelters geographically near associated with each mine. These smelters were either log-fired, or later, coal-fired. These early smelters could extract lead from the ores, but were very inefficient at extracting the more valuable zinc.

The discovery of shallow natural gas fields in the 1890s north and west of Cherokee County caused a profound change in how and where mined ore was processed. Mining companies found it more economically feasible to build larger and more capable smelters at geographical locations where the natural gas fuel sources co-existed, rather than continuing to transporting fuel to the smaller, less-capable, pre-existing smelters. So, as mining operations progressed, the number of small, site-located smelters combined into fewer, yet larger and more regional smelting operations, capable of processing several hundred tons of ore per week for both lead and zinc. More than 20 large smelters were constructed and operated from the mid-1890s until the mid-1970s. The locations of these larger, regional smelters share three common traits; the presence of shallow natural gas available for fuel, the presence of a sufficiently large perennial stream, and the presence of, or ability to connect to, an existing rail line. These regional smelter sites occur in a NE-to-SW line approximately 60 miles long by 10 miles wide, which crosses two contiguous watersheds [and the directly impacted streams]; Neosho River Watershed [Elm and Cow Creeks, and Neosho River], and the Verdigris River Watershed [Drum Creek, Fall, Elk, and Verdigris Rivers].

Environmental impacts from these regional smelters are similar to other metal smelters of the era. Even at peak efficiency, the loss of 15% of the recoverable metals was unavoidable. As an example, the smelter at Galena processed approximately 72,000 pounds of ore per day (at 50% recoverable metal) during the year 1883, which would equates to a production loss of more than 5,400 pounds of metals per day. Metals were lost either through the smokestack to the atmosphere, or remained in the processed ores, or remained in slag. Slag and other process by-products were commonly stored on-site with little prevention of the mobilization and migration of metals from the site. When the sites were closed, little if any action was taken anything was done to prevent the future release of hazardous materials from these sites. Environmental effects associated with these smelter sites frequently include; soil and sediment contamination, phytotoxicity of vegetation in de-vegetation of terrestrial, riparian, and aquatic habitats, food-chain contamination, reduction in aquatic and terrestrial population and community abundance and diversity, and direct mortality to biota. The smelters and affected watersheds are all within the Osage Questas geophysical province, thus providing similar ecological assemblages exist and are all potentially affected at each site.